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![Objective-C
Objective-C is using infix notation with arguments listed after colon:
10
[Object method:argument]
[NSString stringWithString:@”Hello World!”]](https://cdn.statically.io/img/image.slidesharecdn.com/iostestingupdated-161121130641/75/Introduction-to-iOS-Penetration-Testing-10-2048.jpg)
![Class vs Instance Methods
○ Class method can be called on its own
○ Instance method must use instance of an object
11
@interface MyClass : NSObject
+ (void)aClassMethod;
- (void)anInstanceMethod;
@end
[MyClass aClassMethod];
MyClass *object = [[MyClass alloc] init];
[object anInstanceMethod];](https://cdn.statically.io/img/image.slidesharecdn.com/iostestingupdated-161121130641/75/Introduction-to-iOS-Penetration-Testing-11-2048.jpg)
![Objective-C - Message Passing
When you pass method, a special function objc_msgSend() is called:
12
SaySomething *saySomething = [ [ SaySomething alloc ] init ];
[ saySomething say: @"Hello, world!" ];
[ saySomething release ];
Which gets translated into C calls:
objc_msgSend(
objc_msgSend(
objc_msgSend(
objc_msgSend(
objc_getClass("SaySomething"), NSSelectorFromString(@"alloc")),
NSSelectorFromString(@"init")),
NSSelectorFromString(@"say:"), @"Hello, world!"),
NSSelectorFromString(@"release:"));
Source: Hacking and Securing iOS Applications - J. Zdziarski](https://cdn.statically.io/img/image.slidesharecdn.com/iostestingupdated-161121130641/75/Introduction-to-iOS-Penetration-Testing-12-2048.jpg)
![Cycript
34
iOS8-jailbreak:~ root# cycript -p 12345
cy# [SFAntiPiracy isTheDeviceJailbroken]
true
cy# a=choose(JailbreakDetectionVC)
[]
cy# a=choose(JailbreakDetectionVC)
[#"<JailbreakDetectionVC: 0x14ee15620>"]
cy# [a[0] isJailbroken]
True
Worth reading: http://iphonedevwiki.net/index.php/Cycript_Tricks](https://cdn.statically.io/img/image.slidesharecdn.com/iostestingupdated-161121130641/75/Introduction-to-iOS-Penetration-Testing-34-2048.jpg)
![Cycript
35
cy# [a[0] isJailbroken]
true
cy#
JailbreakDetectionVC.prototype.isJailbroken=fu
nction(){return false}
cy# [a[0] isJailbroken]
false](https://cdn.statically.io/img/image.slidesharecdn.com/iostestingupdated-161121130641/75/Introduction-to-iOS-Penetration-Testing-35-2048.jpg)
![Frida - Method Tracing
1. Install Frida on your workstation and iDevice
2. Connect iDevice to USB
3. Use frida-trace
36
$ frida-trace -U -f /Applications/DamnVulnerableIOSApp.app/DamnVulnerableIOSApp -m
"-[JailbreakDetectionVC isJailbroken]:"
4. This creates JS hook with onEnter and onLeave callback functions:
onLeave: function (log, retval, state) {
console.log("Function [JailbreakDetectionVC isJailbroken] originally returned:"+ retval);
retval.replace(0);
console.log("Changing the return value to:"+retval);
}](https://cdn.statically.io/img/image.slidesharecdn.com/iostestingupdated-161121130641/75/Introduction-to-iOS-Penetration-Testing-36-2048.jpg)
![Frida - Method Tracing - Output
37
$ frida-trace -U -f /Applications/DamnVulnerableIOSApp.app/DamnVulnerableIOSApp -m
"-[JailbreakDetectionVC isJailbroken]:"
Instrumenting functions... `...
-[JailbreakDetectionVC isJailbroken]: Loaded handler at
"./__handlers__/__JailbreakDetectionVC_isJailbroken_.js"
Started tracing 1 function. Press Ctrl+C to stop.
Function [JailbreakDetectionVC isJailbroken] originally returned:0x1
Changing the return value to:0x0
/* TID 0x303 */
6890 ms -[JailbreakDetectionVC isJailbroken]
Function [JailbreakDetectionVC isJailbroken] originally returned:0x1
Changing the return value to:0x0
22475 ms -[JailbreakDetectionVC isJailbroken]](https://cdn.statically.io/img/image.slidesharecdn.com/iostestingupdated-161121130641/75/Introduction-to-iOS-Penetration-Testing-37-2048.jpg)
![○ URL handlers, e.g. mailto://
● open another app using its URL handler with:
[[UIApplication sharedApplication] openURL:myURL];
● sender can be authenticated :)
● URL scheme can be hijacked :(
Read more:
https://developer.apple.com/library/ios/documentation/iPhone/Conceptual/iPhoneOSProgrammingGuide/Inter-AppCommunication/Inter-AppCommunication.html
Interprocess Communication
49
Note: If more than one third-party app registers to handle the same URL scheme, there is currently
no process for determining which app will be given that scheme. - Apple’s Documentation](https://cdn.statically.io/img/image.slidesharecdn.com/iostestingupdated-161121130641/75/Introduction-to-iOS-Penetration-Testing-49-2048.jpg)
![File Data Protection
51
Hardware Key
Passcode Key
Class Key
File System Key
File Metadata
[File Key]
File Contents](https://cdn.statically.io/img/image.slidesharecdn.com/iostestingupdated-161121130641/75/Introduction-to-iOS-Penetration-Testing-51-2048.jpg)
![$ otool -Iv DamnVulnerableIOSApp | grep release
0x0045b7dc 83156 ___cxa_guard_release
0x0045fd5c 83414 _objc_autorelease
0x0045fd6c 83415 _objc_autoreleasePoolPop
0x0045fd7c 83416 _objc_autoreleasePoolPush
0x0045fd8c 83417 _objc_autoreleaseReturnValue
0x0045ff0c 83441 _objc_release
[SNIP]
Binary Checks - ARC
57](https://cdn.statically.io/img/image.slidesharecdn.com/iostestingupdated-161121130641/75/Introduction-to-iOS-Penetration-Testing-57-2048.jpg)
Uploaded byOWASP
Introduction to iOS Penetration Testing
The document provides an introduction to iOS penetration testing. It discusses the speaker's background in mobile and web penetration testing with a focus on iOS. The agenda outlines that the talk will cover introduction to iOS, Objective-C runtime basics, setting up a testing environment, and fundamentals of application testing with a focus on black-box testing. It will not cover jailbreak development, Swift, white-box testing, or webapp pentesting. The document then delves into various aspects of iOS including the security model, application sandboxing, Objective-C, and the iOS runtime. It also discusses tools and techniques for static analysis, runtime manipulation, bypassing protections, and investigating local storage.
Introduction to iOS Penetration Testing
- 1. Introduction to iOS PenetrationTesting OWASP 15/11/2016 | Slawomir Kosowski
- 2. ○ Working asMobile and Web pentester ○ Focused on iOS ○ Previously worked on wide range of security projects ○ Educational background in Telecommunications About Me 2 https://www.linkedin.com/in/skosowski
- 3. Introduction How many iOSdevelopers do we have here? How many of you are actually writing in Swift? Any pentesters? Android folks? 3
- 4. Agenda 4 What we willcover: ○ Introduction to iOS ○ Basics of Objective-C runtime ○ Setting up testing environment ○ Fundamentals of app testing ● Focus on black-box testing What we will not cover: ○ Jailbreak development ○ Swift (not in detail) ○ White box testing / code review ○ Webapp pentesting
- 5. Introduction to iOS -Mobile operating system from Apple - Based on XNU kernel from Darwin OS (Unix) - iOS is closed-source with some exceptions* - Applications written in Objective-C (and Swift) - Cocoa Touch - main API for iOS handling user interaction 5 * https://opensource.apple.com
- 6. Apple controls bothhardware and software to provide end-to-end security, with following key features: ○ Secure Boot Chain ○ Secure Enclave (and Touch ID) ○ Encryption and Data Protection ○ Trusted Code Execution ○ Network Security Introduction to iOS security model 6 User Partition Application A Application B Data Protection Class Data Protection Class OS Partition software Source: https://www.apple.com/business/docs/iOS_Security_Guide.pdf Kernel
- 7. Keychain ○ Stores sensitivedata such as passwords, certificates, tokens, etc. ○ Is implemented as SQLite database ○ Application can access only items in its keychain-access-group ○ Can be arbitrarily read on a jailbroken device using keychain-dumper 7
- 8. Application Sandbox ○ iOSSandbox derives from TrustedBSD MAC framework ○ Each third-party application runs as mobile user ○ Only a few system daemons/apps run as root ○ Application can access only its own files and data ○ IPCs are very limited 8
- 9. Objective-C ○ Superset ofC, adding object-oriented functionality ● This means you can include C code in your apps ○ Based on Smalltalk language, supporting message passing, dynamic typing and infix notation ○ Uses interface and implementation file ● Think about .h and .cpp files in C++ 9
- 10. Objective-C Objective-C is usinginfix notation with arguments listed after colon: 10 [Object method:argument] [NSString stringWithString:@”Hello World!”]
- 11. Class vs InstanceMethods ○ Class method can be called on its own ○ Instance method must use instance of an object 11 @interface MyClass : NSObject + (void)aClassMethod; - (void)anInstanceMethod; @end [MyClass aClassMethod]; MyClass *object = [[MyClass alloc] init]; [object anInstanceMethod];
- 12. Objective-C - MessagePassing When you pass method, a special function objc_msgSend() is called: 12 SaySomething *saySomething = [ [ SaySomething alloc ] init ]; [ saySomething say: @"Hello, world!" ]; [ saySomething release ]; Which gets translated into C calls: objc_msgSend( objc_msgSend( objc_msgSend( objc_msgSend( objc_getClass("SaySomething"), NSSelectorFromString(@"alloc")), NSSelectorFromString(@"init")), NSSelectorFromString(@"say:"), @"Hello, world!"), NSSelectorFromString(@"release:")); Source: Hacking and Securing iOS Applications - J. Zdziarski
- 13.
- 14. Objective-C Runtime ○ Objective-Cruntime is written in C and assembly ○ Very interesting subject on its own! ○ Calls are cached so that subsequent messages are dispatched quicker ○ Decision on which method will be called is resolved dynamically ○ This is called Method Swizzling ○ It will help us during black-box testing and runtime manipulation Read more: https://mikeash.com/pyblog/friday-qa-2009-03-20-objective-c-messaging.html http://cocoasamurai.blogspot.com/2010/01/understanding-objective-c-runtime.html http://www.friday.com/bbum/2009/12/18/objc_msgsend-part-1-the-road-map/ 14
- 15.
- 16. Static Binary Analysis ○IDA Pro ○ Hopper (demo closing after 30 minutes) ○ class-dump ○ otool ○ strings 16
- 17. Runtime Manipulation 1. Cycript a.injects into process and enables to manipulate the runtime with interactive console b. supports mixed Objective-C and Javascript syntax 2. Frida a. injects Javascript V8 Javascript Duktape engine into process runtime b. can inject a hook into starting process 17
- 18. Runtime Manipulation -Cont’d 3. Debugger a. Apple moved from GCC and GDB to LLVM and LLDB b. GDB is fully supported until iOS7 c. iOS8 and onwards uses LLDB d. Some key features are still missing in LLDB i. info mach-regions ii. Symbols from stripped ObjC Mach-O binary are not loaded in LLDB 18
- 19. Setting up PentestingLab ○ Bare minimum is one iDevice, e.g. iPad running iOS 8.x ● Recommended at least two or more iDevices ○ You will need to jailbreak it ○ Ideally grab another pair of iPads/iPhones running older iOS for any legacy apps ○ OS X and XCode is very useful, but not mandatory ○ Alternatively, grab your favourite Linux 19
- 20. Setting up PentestingLab - Cont’d ○ Beware: if you fail to JB your device correctly you can restore it and upgrade with iTunes ○ Semi-restore might be handy if your JB fails: https://semi-restore.com/ ○ No possibility to downgrade iOS version 20
- 21. Jailbreaking ○ Get appropriatejailbreak - https://ipsw.me might be handy ○ Jailbreak will install Cydia - the alternative application store as well as couple of useful services ○ From Cydia install aptitude and openssh ○ Install additional packages with aptitude 21
- 22. Jailbreaking - cont’d ○SSH to your iDevice ● Two users are root and mobile ● Default password: alpine ○ Install additional packages with aptitude 22 inetutils syslogd less com.autopear.installipa class-dump com.ericasadun.utilities odcctools cycript sqlite3 adv-cmds bigbosshackertools
- 23. Install Frida ○ Checkinstall guide: www.frida.re/docs/ios ○ Basically add https://build.frida.re to Cydia repo ○ Then install Frida with Cydia 23
- 24. IPA file andBinary ○ IPA file is simply a ZIP archive ● Think of APK but for iOS ● Contains all relevant files like binary itself, graphics, certificates, default data, etc. ○ For static analysis, the Mach-O Binary is interesting ○ Usually it contains two architectures ARM7(s) and ARM64 Read more about Mach-O File Format: https://developer.apple.com/library/mac/documentation/DeveloperTools/Conceptual/MachORuntime/index.html 24
- 25. Important File Location Youcan find system applications in /Applications For all the rest use installipa: 25 iOS8-jailbreak:~ root# installipa -l me.scan.qrcodereader iOS8-jailbreak:~ root# installipa -i me.scan.qrcodereader Bundle: /private/var/mobile/Containers/Bundle/Application/09D08A0A-0BC5-423C-8CC3-FF9499E0B19C Application: /private/var/mobile/Containers/Bundle/Application/09D08A0A-0BC5-423C-8CC3-FF9499E0B19C/QR Reader.app Data: /private/var/mobile/Containers/Data/Application/297EEF1B-9CC5-463C-97F7-FB062C864E56
- 26. Usual Test Approach 1.Obtain IPA file 2. Bypass jailbreak detection (if present) 3. Bypass certificate pinning (if present) 4. Inspect HTTP(S) traffic - usual web app test 5. Abuse application logic by runtime manipulation 6. Check for local data storage (caches, binary cookies, plists, databases) 7. Check for client-specific bugs, e.g. SQLi, XSS 8. Other checks like: logging to ASL with NSLog, application screenshots, no app backgrounding 26
- 27. Binary Encryption - Eachapp in Apple AppStore uses FairPlay DRM, hence is encrypted - You must decrypt it before doing static analysis - Easiest way to do it is to use Clutch - Alternatively you can use lldb and dump process memory once encrypted - Broadly documented in the Internet - If you are doing a pentest, you will get most likely unencrypted IPA file 27
- 28. Binary Security Features ○ARC - Automatic Reference Counting - memory management feature ● adds retain and release messages when required ○ Stack Canary - helps preventing buffer overflow attacks ○ PIE - Position Independent Executable - enables full ASLR for binary All of above are currently set by default in XCode. 28
- 29.
- 30. Jailbreak Detection -Common Methods ○ Check existence of additional files, e.g.: /bin/bash ○ Check API calls like: ● fork() - forbidden on non-JB devices ● system(NULL) returns 0 on non-JB and 1 on JB devices ○ Check if cydia:// URL scheme is registered Read more: https://www.trustwave.com/Resources/SpiderLabs-Blog/Jailbreak-Detection-Methods/ 30
- 31. Bypassing JB detection 1.The easy way: xcon 2. More challenging: a. Debugger/Binary patching b. Frida c. Cycript 31
- 32. Getting Info withClass-dump 32 iOS8-jailbreak:~ root# lipo -thin armv7 DamnVulnerableIOSApp -output DVIA32 iOS8-jailbreak:~ root# class-dump DVIA32 @interface FlurryUtil : ./DVIA/DVIA/DamnVulnerableIOSApp/DamnVulnerableIOSApp/YapDatabase/Extensions/Vie ws/Internal/ { } + (BOOL)appIsCracked; + (BOOL)deviceIsJailbroken;
- 33.
- 34. Cycript 34 iOS8-jailbreak:~ root# cycript-p 12345 cy# [SFAntiPiracy isTheDeviceJailbroken] true cy# a=choose(JailbreakDetectionVC) [] cy# a=choose(JailbreakDetectionVC) [#"<JailbreakDetectionVC: 0x14ee15620>"] cy# [a[0] isJailbroken] True Worth reading: http://iphonedevwiki.net/index.php/Cycript_Tricks
- 35. Cycript 35 cy# [a[0] isJailbroken] true cy# JailbreakDetectionVC.prototype.isJailbroken=fu nction(){returnfalse} cy# [a[0] isJailbroken] false
- 36. Frida - MethodTracing 1. Install Frida on your workstation and iDevice 2. Connect iDevice to USB 3. Use frida-trace 36 $ frida-trace -U -f /Applications/DamnVulnerableIOSApp.app/DamnVulnerableIOSApp -m "-[JailbreakDetectionVC isJailbroken]:" 4. This creates JS hook with onEnter and onLeave callback functions: onLeave: function (log, retval, state) { console.log("Function [JailbreakDetectionVC isJailbroken] originally returned:"+ retval); retval.replace(0); console.log("Changing the return value to:"+retval); }
- 37. Frida - MethodTracing - Output 37 $ frida-trace -U -f /Applications/DamnVulnerableIOSApp.app/DamnVulnerableIOSApp -m "-[JailbreakDetectionVC isJailbroken]:" Instrumenting functions... `... -[JailbreakDetectionVC isJailbroken]: Loaded handler at "./__handlers__/__JailbreakDetectionVC_isJailbroken_.js" Started tracing 1 function. Press Ctrl+C to stop. Function [JailbreakDetectionVC isJailbroken] originally returned:0x1 Changing the return value to:0x0 /* TID 0x303 */ 6890 ms -[JailbreakDetectionVC isJailbroken] Function [JailbreakDetectionVC isJailbroken] originally returned:0x1 Changing the return value to:0x0 22475 ms -[JailbreakDetectionVC isJailbroken]
- 38. Frida on non-jailbrokendevice 38
- 39. Testing for CertificatePinning Gradually relax requirements for server certificate, and check if traffic is successfully proxied through Burp on each stage: 1. Set Burp in proxy settings, make sure that SSL Killswitch is disabled and that Burp Profile is *not* installed → no certificate validation 2. Install Burp Profile (certificate) → no certificate pinning 3. Enable SSL Killswitch → certificate pinned 4. Bypass certificate pinning manually 39
- 40. Bypassing Certificate Pinning -Killswitch: https://github.com/iSECPartners/ios-ssl-kill-switch - Bypassing OpenSSL cert pinning with cycript: https://www.nccgroup.trust/us/about-us/newsroom-and-events/blog/2015/january/bypassing-openssl-certificate-pinning-in-ios-apps/ Other tips: - Certificate is often bundled in the application- look for .der or .pem - Class-dump binary looking for strings like X509 or Cert - Look for the following methods in the binary: NSURLSession, CFStream, AFNetworking 40 Source: iOS Application Security - D. Thiel
- 41. Investigating Local Storage 1.Check app Data directory /private/var/mobile/Containers/Data/Application/<app Bundle> a. .db - using SQLite - check with sqlite3 b. plists 2. NSUserDefaults a. /User/Library/Preferences/ b. /<app>/Library/Preferences/ 3. Protection class a. fileDP tool* 41 http://www.securitylearn.net/2012/10/18/extracting-data-protection-clas s-from-files-on-ios/
- 42. Investigating Local Storage- Cont’d 4. Application screenshots a. /private/var/mobile/Containers/Data/Application/<BundleID>/Library/Caches/Snapshots/ 5. WebView caching a. /User/Library/Caches/*/Cache.db b. /Library/Caches/*/Cache.db 6. Forensic approach: a. ls -lR --full-time before application install, after install and after first use diff the results and check any files that changed b. use strings on any binary/unidentified file formats c. check for WAL files that may contain uncommitted DB transactions 42 http://www.securitylearn.net/2012/10/18/extracting-data-protection-clas s-from-files-on-ios/
- 43.
- 44. Final Thoughts ○ Server-sidebugs (LFI, SQLi, RCE) are still among most impactful ○ Limited scenarios for exploiting device data leakage ● Starting from iPhone 5s the Secure Enclave protects from easy passcode bruteforcing ● Backups? ○ Simple passcode might be an issue (1234, 0000, etc.) ○ User may choose to wipe device after 10 attempts 44
- 45. Current Challenges March 7,2016 October 26, 2016 45
- 46. ○ Frequent iOSrelease with quick adoption rate ○ Slow/unpredictable jailbreak release for recent iOSes ○ Customer asking to test on latest iOS ○ Swift does not use message passing :( ○ Pentesting toolset is lagging Current Challenges 46
- 47. Q&A or drop mea line: me@skosowski.com 47
- 48.
- 49. ○ URL handlers,e.g. mailto:// ● open another app using its URL handler with: [[UIApplication sharedApplication] openURL:myURL]; ● sender can be authenticated :) ● URL scheme can be hijacked :( Read more: https://developer.apple.com/library/ios/documentation/iPhone/Conceptual/iPhoneOSProgrammingGuide/Inter-AppCommunication/Inter-AppCommunication.html Interprocess Communication 49 Note: If more than one third-party app registers to handle the same URL scheme, there is currently no process for determining which app will be given that scheme. - Apple’s Documentation
- 50. ○ Universal Linksintroduced in iOS 9 ● solve problems of openURL ● no unregistered schemes - working over https:// ○ App Extensions introduced in iOS 8 ● are installed with host application and can communicate through extension points: Actions, Custom Keyboards, Document Providers, Photo Editing, Sharing, Today Widgets Read more: https://developer.apple.com/library/ios/documentation/General/Conceptual/AppSearch/UniversalLinks.html Interprocess Communication 50
- 51. File Data Protection 51 HardwareKey Passcode Key Class Key File System Key File Metadata [File Key] File Contents
- 52. Secure Boot Chain ○Only Apple signed code is run on iDevice ○ You need developer’s account to write and run your apps ○ Each level of boot is checked for a valid signature 52 Boot ROM Low-Level Bootloader iBoot iOS Kernel OS Apple Root CA
- 53. Secure Boot Chain- Jailbreak ○ Jailbreak permits running self-signed code ○ It does not break Application Sandbox ○ Usually several exploits are chained to perform jailbreak ○ Look for: TaiG, Pangu, redsn0w 53 iOS Kernel OS Apple Root CA Boot ROM Low-Level Bootloader iBoot Exploit this or that
- 54. Protection Classes 54 Availability FileData Protection Keychain Data Protection When Unlocked NSFileProtectionComplete kSecAttrAccessibleWhenUnlocked When Locked NSFileProtectionCompleteUnlessOpen N/A After First Unlock NSFileProtectionCompleteUntil FirstUserAuthentication kSecAttrAccessibleAfterFirstUnlock Always NSFileProtectionNone kSecAttrAccessibleAlways Passcode Enabled N/A kSecAttrAccessibleWhenPasscodeSetThis DeviceOnly
- 55. $ unzip DamnVulnerableiOSApp.ipa $cd Payload/DamnVulnerableIOSApp.app $ otool -hv DamnVulnerableIOSApp DamnVulnerableIOSApp (architecture armv7): Mach header magic cputype cpusubtype caps filetype ncmds sizeofcmds flags MH_MAGIC ARM V7 0x00 EXECUTE 38 4292 NOUNDEFS DYLDLINK TWOLEVEL WEAK_DEFINES BINDS_TO_WEAK PIE DamnVulnerableIOSApp (architecture arm64): Mach header magic cputype cpusubtype caps filetype ncmds sizeofcmds flags MH_MAGIC_64 ARM64 ALL 0x00 EXECUTE 38 4856 NOUNDEFS DYLDLINK TWOLEVEL WEAK_DEFINES BINDS_TO_WEAK PIE Binary Checks - PIE 55
- 56. $ otool -IvDamnVulnerableIOSApp | grep stack 0x0046040c 83177 ___stack_chk_fail 0x0046100c 83521 _sigaltstack 0x004fc010 83178 ___stack_chk_guard 0x004fe5c8 83177 ___stack_chk_fail 0x004fe8c8 83521 _sigaltstack 0x00000001004b3fd8 83077 ___stack_chk_fail 0x00000001004b4890 83414 _sigaltstack 0x0000000100590cf0 83078 ___stack_chk_guard 0x00000001005937f8 83077 ___stack_chk_fail 0x0000000100593dc8 83414 _sigaltstack Binary Checks - SSP 56
- 57. $ otool -IvDamnVulnerableIOSApp | grep release 0x0045b7dc 83156 ___cxa_guard_release 0x0045fd5c 83414 _objc_autorelease 0x0045fd6c 83415 _objc_autoreleasePoolPop 0x0045fd7c 83416 _objc_autoreleasePoolPush 0x0045fd8c 83417 _objc_autoreleaseReturnValue 0x0045ff0c 83441 _objc_release [SNIP] Binary Checks - ARC 57